As Wilkins and Patterson (1985) noted, organizational culture changes are generally neither whollyrevolutionary nor evolutionary. This recalls Chin and Benne’s (1969) three approaches to change: (a) power/coercive; (b)empirical/rational; and (c) normative/re-educative. When applied to changing climates and cultures, all three can be utilized. Thefirst two approaches can be utilized to change behaviors, which both Burke (2002) and Kilman, Saxton, and Serpa (1985) recommendedas the starting point in cultural change. However, power/coercive changes are more likely to result in compliance, not true culturalchange. Once behavior has been changed, it is necessary to address the deeper, more change-resistant levels of the culture, e.g.,values and beliefs. To make changes at these levels, normative/re-educative approaches are needed.
Normative/re-educative approaches to cultural change require extended periods of time and sustained, virtuallydaily, efforts by those leading the school improvement effort. As many authorities on organizational culture note, one of the primaryways leaders can gradually accomplish normative/re-educative change is simply through the deliberate, consistent attention they focuson specific behaviors, values and fundamental assumptions (Allen, 1985; Deal, 1993; Deal&Peterson, 1993; Harris, 2002; Schein, 1993). Leithwood, Jantzi, and Steinbeck (1999) discussed theimportance of clarifying shared beliefs and values and motivating by moral imperatives. Deal and Peterson (1999) and Schein (1985b;1992) emphasized the importance of clarifying shared beliefs and values and of motivating by moral imperatives. Deal and Peterson(1993) and Schein (1992) added discussions on the essentiality of leaders modeling behaviors and values, consistently. This modelingis especially essential as leaders deal with organizational crises (Schein, 1992) or handle conflict (Deal&Peterson, 1993; Schein, 1992).
As part of this process, individuals within the organization must be repeatedly offered invitations toparticipate in the new culture, encouraged to experiment with new behaviors in an unthreatening atmosphere that accepts failure aspart of the process, and empowered to help shape the culture and the organization (Allen, 1985; Deal&Peterson, 1993; Harris, 2002; Leithwood, Jantzi,&Steinbeck, 1999; Maher&Buck, 1993).
Leaders of school improvement processes can help to change the organizational culture through the carefully selective telling of stories, emphasizing heroes and heroines whoseactions exemplify the beliefs, values, and assumptions fundamental to the desired changes (Deal, 1993; Deal&Peterson, 1993; Schein, 1992). Positive stories of heroes and heroines aregenerally regarded as more effective than negative stories about organizational members or stakeholders who have acted in wayscontrary to the desired cultural mores and norms. Deal (1993) extended this storytelling responsibility of leaders to workingwith the“informal network of priests, gossips, and storytellers”(p. 17) of the school culture.