Poland deserves further consideration. While a giant in size, it was the weakest and most vulnerable of all the European states. It had a population of about 8,000,000 (France had over 16,000,000), but it was poor politically and militarily and it became a battle ground for invading foreign armies. The causes of Poland's impotence were several. First, there was no real racial or religious cohesion - 1/2 the people were true Poles and were Catholic, but the other half were Orthodox Lithuanians and Russians, Jews and Luthern Germans. In addition the Cossacks obeyed only their Ukranian "Hetman" and refused all orders from the Polish king. To continue, the political situation was bad. Poland was a republic with a king who was elective and who had only that power given him by feuding nobility. The true rulers were the great Polish and Lithuanian lords and among the latter the Sapieha family defied all kings of Poland. Furthermore, neither king nor Diet had any machinery for tax collection. The army, although with individually brave men, had no discipline and the lords might withdraw their own contingents for any reason, at any time. (Ref. 131 ) At times, particularly early in the century, the Poles tried to be aggressive, but in the end they always seemed to be on the short end of the stick. With these generalities in mind, we shall give a little more political detail.
Upon the death of Bathory at the end of the previous century, the Polish Diet bargained for a year before finally giving the throne to Sigismund III, who, as heir to the Swedish crown, might unite the two countries and control the Baltic, checking Russia. Half of his reign was devoted to this vain struggle. The sudden death of Boris Godunov in Russia, gave Sigismund another idea of also ruling Moscovy. He marched into Russia with an army, took Smolensk and even entered Moscow for a short time (1611-1612), retreated and later again marched on that city but was unable to reach it in the Russian winter. The only result of all this was the possession of Smolensk and Severski and a strong infusion of Polish influence into Russian life. (Ref. 53 ) The rest of Sigismund's reign was a succession of other disastrous wars, including an expensive struggle with the Turks, during which time the Swedish king took advantage of his preoccupation to invade Livonia. Upon his death in 1632 the Diet gave the crown to his son Ladislas IV, a fine general and an enlightened man who encouraged debate on religion an~ promoted art and music. He died in 1648 just as a great Cossack Revolt threatened the existence of the Polish state. (Ref. 53 )
The Cossack Revolt, resulting from a complex set of dissatisfactions, including interference with their Orthodox worship, was first led by Bogdan Chmielnicki and supported by the Moslem Tatars of the Crimea. As the Polish Diet selected the Jesuit John II Casimir as ruler, Chmielnicki cast his lot with Orthodox Russia and offered the Ukraine to Czar Alexis. Russia accepted, knowing that it meant war with Poland. But the Crimean Tatars preferred a Polish to a Russian Ukraine and they shifted their support back to Poland. As the war raged, the Swedish king slipped in and conquered Warsaw. But the Swedes became over-enthusiastic, plundered the country, despoiled the churches, etc, until the populace united and pushed them back. Karl (Charles) X, the Swedish king, died and that part of the Polish war ceased. The Russian involvement came to an end in 1667 with Smolensk, Kiev and the eastern part of the Ukraine ceded to Russia. A terrible side effect of the Cossack Revolt was the accompanying ferocious massacres of the Polish Jews, who had served as stewards and tax gatherers for the Polish and Lithuanian estates. Early in the century 40% to 50% of all trade in Poland was handled by itinerant Jews