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On a more formal basis, one of the most commonly cited approaches to effecting cultural change inorganizations is through the modification or creation of organizational rites and rituals that emphasize and celebrate themajor beliefs, values, and fundamental assumptions associated with the desired school improvement (Deal, 1993; Deal&Kennedy, 1982; Deal&Peterson, 1993; Schein, 1992). Among the organizational subsystems that might be affected by, and affect,the cultural changes are: (a) rewards (Allen, 1985; Schein, 1992); (b) information and communication systems (Allen, 1985; Schein,1992); (c) training (Allen, 1985); (d) recruitment, selection, and orientation (Allen, 1985; Deal&Peterson, 1993; Schein, 1992); (e) organizational structure and design (Schein, 1992); and (f)formal statements of philosophy, values, creed, goals, or vision (Schein, 1992).

Summary and Closure

School culture and climate are integral components of the school improvement process. They affect decisionsthroughout all phases of that process. In turn, they are affected by the decisions made in all phases of the process. Althoughamorphous and complex enough to cause both contradictory and confusing discussions in the professional knowledge base, cultureand climate are very real, very powerful forces in organizations. Although difficult to measure precisely, both constructs can bediscerned within an organization if the evaluator has sufficient time and access to witness the daily behaviors of members of theorganization and probe deeply as to the values, beliefs, and fundamental assumptions underlying those behaviors. Leaders ofschool improvement processes can utilize the information gained through the assessment of the school’s climate and culture to help guide each phase of the change process, from determining theschool’s readiness for change to selecting the types of improvements most likely to be compatible with the organization’s climate and culture, from implementing the improvements to ensuringthat they become institutionalized. Despite considerable discussion in the professional knowledge base as to how feasible it is to makesignificant changes in a school’s climate or culture, in some cases it is the climate or culture, itself, which most needs to bechanged if true school improvement is to occur. Through judicious use, over time, of power/coercive, rational/empirical, and,primarily, normative/re-educative change strategies, school leaders can shape and develop cultures and climates that are in harmonywith, and supportive of, the desired organizational changes.

References

Allen, R. F. (1985). Four phases for bringing about cultural change.In R. H. Kilman,

M.J. Saxton,&R. Serpa (Eds)., Gaining control of the corporate culture (pp.

332-350). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Armenakis, A.A., Harris, S. G.,&Mossholder, K. W. (1993). Creating readiness for

organizational change. Human Relations, 46, 681-703.

Barnard, C. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.