4.29 Europe: a.d. 1501 to 1600  (Page 8/29)

The true German religious war, as contrasted to the Peasants' War, began in 1546, a few months after Luther's death. The Protestant Saxon army was badly beaten at Lochau.

By 1547 a kind of settlement was reached but in 1552 all Germany was at war again. Charles V abdicated, giving Germany to his brother Ferdinand and Spain and the Netherlands to his son Philip. Charles, himself, died in 1558 in a monastery where he had been living in royal splendor. The greatness of the Holy Roman Empire died with Charles.

The religious Peace of Augsburg, negotiated by Ferdinand, marks the end of the Reformation period. The adopted formula of 1555 recognized the legality of the status quo - in both religious and territorial sovereignty. Ecclesiastical officials had the right to convert to Protestantism, but they could not secularize their property. The only real victory of the Lutherans in this peace treaty was a legal recognition of their existence. Four factors colored the second half of this 16th century in Germany, as recorded by Rodes (Ref. 184 ):

• The counter-reformation

  This really began with Pope Paul III. The final Council of Trent convened in 1562, controlled by the Jesuits and it reaffirmed all the basic Catholic doctrine. There were no concessions to the Protestants and the Council did not reconcile the two faiths. Actually the Catholic Church was immensely strengthened as it then established the "Catholic Index"

• Disunity of the protestants

  "Disunity among the Protestants became particularly evident in the distrust and even hatred between the established Lutheran faith and the new Reformed Sect of Calvinism that began to spread across Germany in the 1550s."
  Quotation from Rodes (Ref. 45 ), page 137
  Calvin's predestination and his doctrine of attributing sovereignty to the religious community rather than to the state, divided the groups. There were many decapitations of Protestants by Protestants, as well as by Catholics. Lutheranism began to assume primarily a defensive attitude, while Calvinism, militant and aggressive, kept the expansive spirit alive and completed the conversion of Holland and Scotland while also retaining England in the Protestant camp

• Foreign influences on german affairs

  Most important was the division of the Habsburg inheritance. King Philip II (Spain) was the wealthiest and most powerful ruler of Europe and his troops frequently interfered in Germany in behalf of Catholicism. In addition, German princes continued their various alliances with foreign powers. The German aristocracy rushed to adopt foreign customs and culture, particularly French

• Lack of political leadership

  In Germany, only one ruler stood out in this period, Duke Maximilian I in the Duchy of Bavaria and he did not come into power until 1597.

Hungary

It was a bad century for Hungary, beginning with a great revolt of the peasants, under George Dozsa. This uprising against the aristocracy was finally put down in a sea of blood by John Zapolya. Immediately the Werbocz Code was proclaimed, which made the serfdom of the peasants perpetual. A strike by Hungarian miners in 1525 and 1526 started that industry on a downward slide. (Ref. 292 )