2.10 Xps of carbon nanomaterials  (Page 15/5)

Introduction

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), also called electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), is a method used to determine the elemental composition of a material’s surface. It can be further applied to determine the chemical or electronic state of these elements.

The photoelectric effect is the ejection of electrons from the surface of a material upon exposure to electromagnetic radiation of sufficient energy. Electrons emitted have characteristic kinetic energies proportional to the energy of the radiation, according to [link] , where KE is the kinetic energy of the electron, h is Planck’s constant, ν is the frequency of the incident radiation, E _b is the ionization, or binding, energy, and φ is the work function. The work function is a constant which is dependent upon the spectrometer.

In photoelectron spectroscopy, high energy radiation is used to expel core electrons from a sample. The kinetic energies of the resulting core electrons are measured. Using the equation with the kinetic energy and known frequency of radiation, the binding energy of the ejected electron may be determined. By Koopman’s theorem, which states that ionization energy is equivalent to the negative of the orbital energy, the energy of the orbital from which the electron originated is determined. These orbital energies are characteristic of the element and its state.

Basics of xps

Sample preparation

As a surface technique, samples are particularly susceptible to contamination. Furthermore, XPS samples must be prepared carefully, as any loose or volatile material could contaminate the instrument because of the ultra-high vacuum conditions. A common method of XPS sample preparation is embedding the solid sample into a graphite tape. Samples are usually placed on 1 x 1 cm or 3 x 3 cm sheets.

Experimental set-up

Monochromatic aluminum ( h ν = 1486.6 eV) or magnesium ( h ν = 1253.6 eV) K _α X-rays are used to eject core electrons from the sample. The photoelectrons ejected from the material are detected and their energies measured. Ultra-high vacuum conditions are used in order to minimize gas collisions interfering with the electrons before they reach the detector.

Measurement specifications

XPS analyzes material between depths of 1 and 10 nm, which is equivalent to several atomic layers, and across a width of about 10 µm. Since XPS is a surface technique, the orientation of the material affects the spectrum collected.

Data collection

X-ray photoelectron (XP) spectra provide the relative frequencies of binding energies of electrons detected, measured in electron-volts (eV). Detectors have accuracies on the order of ±0.1 eV. The binding energies are used to identify the elements to which the peaks correspond. XPS data is given in a plot of intensity versus binding energy. Intensity may be measured in counts per unit time (such as counts per second, denoted c/s). Often, intensity is reported as arbitrary units (arb. units), since only relative intensities provide relevant information. Comparing the areas under the peaks gives relative percentages of the elements detected in the sample. Initially, a survey XP spectrum is obtained, which shows all of the detectable elements present in the sample. Elements with low detection or with abundances near the detection limit of the spectrometer may be missed with the survey scan. [link] shows a sample survey XP scan of fluorinated double-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNTs).