1.2 Thermogravimetric analysis of single walled carbon nanotubes  (Page 19/3)

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and the associated differential thermal analysis (DTA) are widely used for the characterization of both as-synthesized and side-wall functionalized single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs). Under oxygen, SWNTs will pyrolyze leaving any inorganic residue behind. In contrast in an inert atmosphere since most functional groups are labile or decompose upon heating and as SWNTs are stable up to 1200 °C, any weight loss before 800 °C is used to determine the functionalization ratio of side-wall functionalized SWNTs. The following properties of SWNTs can be determined using this TGA;

1. The mass of metal catalyst impurity in as synthesized SWNTs.
2. The number of functional groups per SWNT carbon (C _SWNT ).
3. The mass of a reactive species absorbed by a functional group on a SWNT.

Quantitative determination of these properties are used to define the purity of SWNTs, and the extent of their functionalization.

An overview of thermogravimetric analysis

The main function of TGA is the monitoring of the thermal stability of a material by recording the change in mass of the sample with respect to temperature. [link] shows a simple diagram of the inside of a typical TGA.

Inside the TGA, there are two pans, a reference pan and a sample pan. The pan material can be either aluminium or platinum. The type of pan used depends on the maximum temperature of a given run. As platinum melts at 1760 °C and alumium melts at 660 °C, platinum pans are chosen when the maximum temperature exceeds 660 °C. Under each pan there is a thermocouple which reads the temperature of the pan. Before the start of each run, each pan is balanced on a balance arm. The balance arms should be calibrated to compensate for the differential thermal expansion between the arms. If the arms are not calibrated, the instrument will only record the temperature at which an event occurred and not the change in mass at a certain time. To calibrate the system, the empty pans are placed on the balance arms and the pans are weighed and zeroed.

As well as recording the change in mass, the heat flow into the sample pan (differential scanning calorimetry, DSC) can also be measured and the difference in temperature between the sample and reference pan (differential thermal analysis, DTA). DSC is quantitative and is a measure of the total energy of the system. This is used to monitor the energy released and absorbed during a chemical reaction for a changing temperature. The DTA shows if and how the sample phase changed. If the DTA is constant, this means that there was no phase change. [link] shows a DTA with typical examples of an exotherm and an endotherm.

When the sample melts, the DTA dips which signifies an endotherm. When the sample is melting it requires energy from the system. Therefore the temperature of the sample pan decreases compared with the temperature of the reference pan. When the sample has melted, the temperature of the sample pan increases as the sample is releasing energy. Finally the temperatures of the reference and sample pans equilibrate resulting in a constant DTA. When the sample evaporates, there is a peak in the DTA. This exotherm can be explained in the same way as the endotherm.