31.3 Europe: a.d. 1601 to 1700  (Page 8/30)

An interesting side-light relative to the long, intermittent Christian-Turkish wars in Hungary had to do with the basic prerequisites of battle. Just as modern warfare would grind to a halt without gasoline and related substances, so the 16th and 17th century warfare was inconceivable without barley (or oats) for the cavalry. "No barley, no war."

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Czechoslovakia

Moravia was a margraviate and Bohemia a kingdom, both under the domination of the Habsburg family, although a Calvinist king was elected in Bohemia in 1618. One of the triggers that initiated the Thirty Years War was a rebellion in Bohemia in that year against heavy taxes which had been levied on all Protestants by Emperor Ferdinand as a measure to bring the country back to Catholicism and Habsburg obedience. The rebellion was put down over a period of 3 years of war by the emperor with troops and money from Spain, German Catholics and the Pope. Thereafter only the Catholic religion was permitted in both Bohemia and Moravia. (Ref. 8 ) During that war a petty Bohemian nobleman,

Albrecht von Wallenstein, made soldiering into a vast speculative business. Although nominally only a contractor for the emperor, in effect he was almost a sovereign himself, because of the size of military forces which he commanded and supplied by taxation, outright plunder and massive, complex market transactions. In the latter, he cooperated with a Flemish businessman named Hans De Witte. Both were untouched by religious fervor or business scruples, but they developed an army of exceptional efficiency, numbering over 50,000 at its peak. Wallenstein's assassination was arranged by some of his enemies in the emperor's court in 1634. (Ref. 279 )

Late in the Thirty Years War Bohemia was invaded again, this time by Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus. Ferdinand II bore the brunt of the fighting, but even then the Swedes penetrated through until they were actually in sight of Vienna. Then their long supply lines began to fail and they withdrew. But Bohemia was ruined, with only 6,000 villages out of an original 35,000 considered habitable. The population fell from 2,000,000 to 700,000. (Ref. 213 ) The lower classes of Bohemia along with the city-states of Germany were subordinated to princely power based on control by standing, professional armies. (Ref. 279 ) Recovery began, somewhat, at the end of the century when, along with Saxony, the Bohemian woolen and linen industries began to even outdo the old English and Flemish markets. (Ref. 8 ) (Continue on page 954)

Switzerland

The long antagonism of the buffer state of Savoy and Switzerland flared again as the Savoyards attacked Geneva in 1602. The attack was frustrated, but it resulted in a reaffirmation of alliance between the whole Swiss Confederation and France, although the Catholic cantons also retained their alliance with Spain. (Ref. 119 ) Officially the Swiss remained neutral in the Thirty Years War but they were involved some on their border at the Valtelline Pass, the most important link between Habsburg Austria and their Spanish possessions in Italy. In 1625 the pass was seized by a Swiss force in French pay, but in 1637 pastor George Jenatsch, originally a Protestant from Zurich, turned Catholic, secured Austrian aid and drove out the French. By treaty of 1639 the passes were left open to the use of Spanish troops. The chief occupation of the Swiss in the last half of the century was fighting, but usually as mercenaries. Tens of thousands of their men hired out in this way, particularly in France. Some of the Swiss cities, particularly Basle, became important relay stations for intercontinental traffic where overland vehicular freight, the Rhine and mule trains from the mountains came together. Some of the large transport firms made their headquarters in Switzerland. (Ref. 292 ) (Continue on page 956)